The meaning and importance of resilience in developmental psychology and what are the main factors that enhance resilience

 “I am not what happened to me

I am what I choose to become.”

-Carl Gustav Jung

 

The aim of this essay is to discuss the meaning and importance of resilience in developmental psychology and what are the main factors that enhance resilience.

In psychological context resilience (Latin resilire – leap back) is a process of, or outcome adaptation despite threatening circumstances (Masten et al, 1990). In other words it is a capacity to adapt well when facing traumatic events, threats or stress. The estimation of resilience requires disruptive and challenging circumstances that imperil positive adaptation (Masten et al, 1990). However some children develop positive adaptation despite violence, poverty or other stressors in their environment.

Researchers have described resilience as adaptation to changing events (Block and Block, 1980), as resistance to psychosocial threat experience (Rutter, 1999), vigorous coping with trauma (North et al, 2012), ability to bounce back from adversity and well adapt to it (Narayanan, 2008).

For a long time it was believed that if a child is exposed to parental mental disorder or any type of trauma then a negative outcome is unavoidable. This assumption arrived from early research that only studied mishap individuals. These findings were limited to the individuals with psychopathologies and their backgrounds.

The scientific study of resilience appeared in 1960-1970 when a positive adaptation in children of high risk of developing psychopathology was discovered (Masten, 2012). Researchers labelled them as “invincible” (Werner & Smith, 1982) and believed that they had special abilities to recover from calamity.

First behavioural scientists were interested in psychopathological cases they noticed that not all children develop mental disorders even living under threatening conditions. Study by Bleuler (1978) found that not all children raised by schizophrenic mothers developed psychopathology. That suggested that resilience was not fixed individual quality but rather a process.

Years later researchers shifted from risk-based focus to surroundings, such as family, peers and society (Masten, 2006) and developed the idea that resilience was not innate but instead a process of development (Masten, 2001).

Longitudinal studies provide consistent evidence that individuals not always develop negative outcome even if they are exposed to threatening circumstances. The best known is the Kauai Longitudinal study that followed individuals from birth for forty years. The study included cohort of 698 Hawaiian children who were examined by researchers, including health practitioners and social workers. The study supported the notion that exposure to trauma relates to negative outcome in development, however it was found that one out of three children did not develop any mental or health difficulties (Werner & Smith, 1979).

The whole environment including family, school influences child’s development. Social Ecological Model by Bronfenbrenner (1979) describes all systems as unit interacting together. Ontogenic (individual) system interacts with components such as intelligence, gender and also with other systems such as microsystem, macrosystem (school, law system, siblings). The model suggests there are several levels of circumstances for protective process in development of children (Betancourt & Khan, 2008).

The outcome is determined by several factors over time, such as risk, vulnerability, protective factors and resilience.  Newman (2004) defined risk as a factor that escalates the probability of negative outcome affecting individual. Vulnerability is a component that represents individual more vulnerable to a threat. Protective factors are described as the assets that restrain the influence of threat. Resilience identified as positive adaptation when facing threat.

The main focus of resilience theory includes positive factors and protective mechanisms. Risk factors increase the probability that individual will experience negative outcome. Resilience can be also promoted by successful control of risk factors however when risk factors increase, individuals ability to resist decreases. Compensatory model (Garmezy et al, 1984) suggests that positive factors can counteract the effect of risk factors. Compensatory factor has direct influence on outcome and has no interaction with risk factor. Risk-protective model (Garmezy et al, 1984) suggests that positive factors modify the negative effect of risk factors.

Garmezy (1991) proposed triadic model of resilience that is used to explore the process of resilience. The triadic model defines the interactions between risk and protective factors on three levels. The individual, the family and the community (environment) are identified as three elements of protective factors (Rutter, 1979; Garmezy et al, 1984; Sandler, 2001).

Rutter (2007) proposed that resilience is mostly determined by individual mental processes, coping strategies and mental sets. That suggests that the origin of resilience is prone to individual cognitive processes and personal abilities to confront calamity.

Coping is another factor that is related to resilience. Coping is defined as behaviour or emotion regulation under threatening or stressful conditions (Skinner & Welborn, 1994). Eisenberg et al (1997) defined coping as self-regulation. They suggested that individuals control their own emotions and use self-regulation under stress. Religion is one of the aspects of coping (Khawaja et al., 2008).

Individual’s beliefs influence the amount of stress they experience (Bandura, 1988, p. 284.). Those who believe they are not able to handle challenging situations experience a lot of stress. According to Bandura, success experience is the most efficient way of developing robust perception of efficacy. That suggests that if people are aware of their capability to succeed they overcome failures much quicker.  

Positive self-esteem, self-sufficiency, self-efficacy and confidence are important elements of resilience (Milgram & Palti, 1993). Locus of control, the extent to which individuals recognize they have power over events in their lives, is associated with resilience (Cowen et al, 1992). Resilient individuals believe they can control their environment and have greater extent of self-control.

Self-control is a significant factor in resilience and later alteration to adversity in life (Eisenberg & Spinrad, 2004). Freud (1920) hypothesized that the capability to practice self-control is vital to development. In 1960’s professor at Stanford University Walter Mischel conducted a study on self-control. Young children were offered a marshmallow they could eat right now, or wait and have two marshmallows. 70 % of children ate the marshmallow instantly, and 30 % resisted the temptation. Follow-up studies found that those children who resisted temptation during the marshmallow experiment had better life outcomes, performed better in personal, social and academic level (Mischel et al, 1989). Neuroscience indicates that self-control depends on cognitive skills in the prefrontal lobes of the brain where reasoning and the ability to plan can alter stress (Ivey et al, 2015).

Self-efficacy is appointed as one component of resilience (Rutter, 1987). Individuals with high level of self-efficacy are confident in their own capability when facing calamity (Bandura, 1997). Such individuals appoint themselves more challenging goals and demonstrate greater determination and discover more opportunities for experiencing mastery.

Self-actualization could be also linked to resilience (MacFarlane 1998:14). Carl Rogers (1986) suggests that individuals seek absolute prosperity and desire resilience when facing adversity. Unconditional positive regard, unconditional affection that can be encountered in child-caregiver relationship, promotes resilience. Because of unconditional positive regard individual is capable to identify own true potential. According to Rogers self-actualization is an automatic process however a caregiver is essential to nurture positive regard. That suggests that unconditional affection is fundamental for self-actualization.

According to Abraham Maslow (1943) self-actualization is correlated with optimal psychological welfare. Both Rogers and Maslow believed that individuals are capable to overcome threats and regulate their lives.

Studies propose that personality traits are predictors of resilience .A cross-sectional study investigated the relationship between the big five personality traits and psychological resilience (Fayombo, 2010). Statistically significant positive relationships were found between extraversion, conscientiousness, agreeableness, openness to experience and resilience and negative correlation was found between neuroticism and resilience. Previous studies provide consistent results that extroversion is positively related to resilience, and neuroticism is negatively related to resilience (Shiner and Masten, 2012; Liu et al., 2012). Again extraversion is positively related to happiness and neuroticism is negatively correlated to happiness (Furnham & Cheng, 2003).

Not just individual but also families can have resilience. According to McCubbin and McCubin (2005) resilient families adapt well when facing difficulties and non-resilient families capitulate more easily. Family protective factors offer resistance to the negative outcome when facing stress and delivers protective environment that allows the success of family member (McCubbin & McCubbin, 2005, p. 31).

Researchers address the environmental, genetic, epigenetic and neural mechanisms in resilience (Feder et al, 2009). Recent studies are starting to identify biological processes on behavioural responses. The degree of adaptability is determined by interactions between person’s genetic fond and history of exposure to stressors (Feder et al, 2009). Most of brain development occurs during the first years and that is why early developmental trauma and neglect have excessive effect on brain functioning (Perry, 2002).

In 1951 Anna Freud together with Sophie Dann studied children who were rescued from concentration camps. Children witnessed many terrifying events including death. It was believed that children will suffer irreversible damage and develop psychopathology. However years later children showed improvement they formed attachments to their care givers and showed no sign of psychopathy. That suggests that attachment formation is vital for the development and is crucial to have an attachment figure not necessary a mother-like but anybody to form an emotional bond (Gross, 2010). Studies with Romanian adoptive children also demonstrated that children are capable to improve in positive environment (Rutter, 1998.)

The process of resilience is of holistic matter that combines individual and family (Riley & Masten, 2005). Positive relationship with family and peers and prosocial behaviour were main factors in preventing PTSD in refugee children those who witnessed torture and those who were not witnessing torture (Daud et al, 2008). Social support system and relationship with caregivers are very influential in developing resilience (Luthar, 2006; Masten & Gewirtz, 2006; Hodes et al, 2008).

In war-affected children personal factors such as self- regulation and intelligence, caregiver, access to school, attachment and social support promote resilience (Betancourt & Khan, 2008). According to Kia-Keating & Ellis (2007), sense of belonging to school attributed to more positive psychological outcome in Somali refugees.

Most researchers address the importance of childhood years in development. Understanding resilience can provide researchers ways to promote wellbeing in children. Also understanding resilience is important in PTSD treatment. Absence of resilience in threatening environment can provoke antisocial, destructive behaviour in the future.  As research suggest that there is a correlation between the child’s upbringing environment and future behaviour. Neglected children or with poor family relationships tend to develop prosocial or criminal behaviour (Holmes et al, 2001) later in life. Previous research illustrates how cognitive, social, physical, emotional functioning is affected by childhood stress (Rutter, 1999; Moskowitz & Connolly, 2001; Anda et al, 2006).

Psychiatrist Bruce Perry (2006) suggests that children are made resilient and not born. According to Masten (2001) young children can be taught to be resilient. Several approaches have been suggested to enhance resilience.

Risk focused approach attempts to diminish development of threats, for example, drug use or underage pregnancy. Asset-focused approach is used when threats are inoperable and on-going, for example, parent education or better access to healthcare. Process-focused approach protects adaptation systems to reinforce positive development, for example, support long term relationships. All of the approaches are used in the most prosperous interventions.

Intrinsic and extrinsic factors were recognized by Daniel and Wessel (2002) to depict resilience. Intrinsic factors include secure base, a sense of belonging, self- esteem, an attitude towards the self, and self-efficacy, belief in own capabilities to achieve an outcome. Extrinsic factors include at least one secure attachment, family, peers and community support.

The Resiliency Wheel developed by Henderson and Milstein (2003) is one of the best acknowledged frameworks used by educators. It contains six components that include the protective factors in attempt to reinforce children resilience in schools.

One component of the Resiliency Wheel indicates the significance of prosocial bonding, promotes positive relationships between individual, adults and peers. Vygotsky (1978) emphasized the role of adult as essential in the process of development and learning. A teacher can be very important person in child’s life and deliver positive role model (Benard, 1995). Social learning theory (Bandura, 1977) also emphasizes the importance of influential models such as parents, teachers and peers.

Consistent boundaries, teaching life skills, providing support, set high expectations and encourage participation are other components of the Resiliency Wheel. Providing support is the most important component of this framework.

Reuven Feuerstein (1921) spent his life working with disadvantaged individuals, mostly holocaust survivors and highly stigmatized as mentally impaired children (Goldberg, 1991. p.37). Despite the severe trauma experienced by children he believed in their ability to change and function normally. Feuerstein’s intervention helped children rescued from a concentration camp who were incapable to function normally. They turned into healthy individuals, showed no signs of psychopathology.

Feuerstein believed that there are no hopeless children but rather modifiable. He emphasized that adult intervention must provide purposeful direction, a mediated learning. During mediated learning teacher or parent (mediator) interact with learner, by encouraging or praising and provides learning stimulus and observes learner’s response to stimulus. Feuerstein indicated the importance of cultural identity and sense of belonging for the development of resilient cognition that is created by mediated learning experience. (Goldberg, 1991, p.38).

Affiliation, or being part of a group, helps children feel united, appreciated and included (Bruce & Perry, 2002). That suggests that sense of belongingness and notion of caring and supportive adult encourage positive outcome and enhance resilience. Helping child to construct new knowledge and the experience of learning is crucial in development.

Supportive school experiences have been identified as influencing resilience for children in adversity (Gilligan, 1998). In Somali refugees study (Kia-Keating & Ellis, 2007), education and sense of being part of a group related to lower stress. Peer relationships were also identified as part of resilience in Iraqi refugees (Daud et al, 2008). It was noted that stigmatization with the dominant culture affect the mental health of refugees (Ellis et al, 2008). That suggests that social support and community involvement are important factors in promoting resilience.  

Previous studies suggest that therapy can enhance resilience in person. Cognitive behavioural therapy or any other type of therapy can promote optimism or self-worth that could help enhance resilience (Feder et al, 2009).

Early interventions can also minimize the threat and increase the possibility of resilience. (Feder et al, 2009).

There are several programmes available today that are designed to promote resilience. The Penn Resiliency Programme based in the United States of America, stimulate adaptive coping skills and teach competent problem solving skills. The programme has been found to be productive in promoting resilience in children when facing stressors (Seligman, 1998).

The programme FRIENDS is a universal prevention project that is based on Cognitive Behaviour Therapy that can be used both by schools and in clinical setting. The project promotes emotional intelligence, self-esteem, psychological resilience and positive relationships with peers and adults. The programme has been found to be effective in improving resilience by increasing self-esteem and level of optimism and reducing anxiety (Stallard et al, 2005).

Resilience research findings are often subjected to criticism. Different measures used in resilience research makes it difficult to analyse results between different studies. It has been argued that the definition of positive outcome is a matter of value judgements, specific culture and history (Ungar, 2004). It is important to recognize that the element of resilience in one culture differ from those in other culture.

In many of studies of children raised up in adversity, the definition of positive outcome is often restricted to the prevention of addiction to alcohol or drug and criminal behaviour (Werner and Smith, 1992).

The importance of resilience has been recognized by educators and government organizations. Programmes promoting resilience continues to be applied in educational setting and home environment. Professionals from all fields of disciplines need to work closely in order to develop productive resilience enhancing interventions. Secure and caring environment is critical in child’s physical, emotional and cognitive development. Individuals are highly malleable to distress and readjust when needed however every individual needs necessary assets to succeed. Caregivers, health professionals and communities can provide necessary assets that would help to improve resilience.